Epigraphic Sources Research Articles

Development of Internal Trade Routes and Centers under the Kakatiyas

Abstract: During the Kakatiya period internal trade seems to have been in a fairly prosperous condition. The Kakatiya rulers, royal families, subordinate chiefs and others also encouraged development of internal trade. The trade was conducted by wellorganized merchant guilds. The epigraphical sources reveal that several kinds of merchant guilds used to carry on the commercial operations in the kingdom. The guilds were famous for carrying on the trade and each guild acted as a single corporation and their acts were recognized and respected by all. The guilds also tried to maintain cordial relations with the state since the successful functioning of trade and commerce depended upon the stability of the government and peace and order that prevailed in the kingdom. According to historical sources, the Kakatiya rulers, after remarkable development in agriculture and industry, widened the extent of internal trade centers and brought new markets and constructed good highways for the easy transport of commodities from place to another. Under these favorable circumstances, a brisk internal trade flourished.

Geopolitical position and administrative affiliation of the Iapodes in the Roman province of Dalmatia

The Romans specified the Iapodes as one of the most bellicose indigenous communities. Nevertheless, the preserved works of Roman authors show that even the Romans were aware that the Iapodes were, in fact, an alliance of smaller communities. The Romans gave a generic name to this alliance based on their experience in warfare and their knowledge of their territory. In terms of topic, this paper is divided into three units. The first part addresses the question of a fragmentary identity of the Iapodian communities based on literary and epigraphic sources and literature analysis. Using the same methodology, the second part analyses the problem of the position and number of the Iapodes in Conventus Scardonitanus. In the last part, using the example of the Iapodian communities whose assumed territory was in the valley of the Una River, shows the existence of a separate local identity especially manifested through the role of the elites.

About the First Koguryo Capital

The article presents the formation problem of the early Koguryo state’s capital in the early medieval time. This subject has not been a particularly hot issue in Russian historiography. The main Korean and Chinese written and epigraphic sources were considered to resolve this background about the early capital. It categorically said, that in the 1st century BC, Koguryo developed as an established real state with an obligatory element as the capital. At the same time, information about the localization and structure of the early capital is uninformative and convoluted. Therefore, written sources were supplemented by archaeological data on the Wunu mountain city located in the Liaoning province, since in historiography, this site is correlated with the location of the first Koguryo capital. According to its characteristics, it represents a sparsely populated fortified settlement located in a hard-to-reach mountain valley on top of a high mountain. Different locations of the surrounding area are considered as the location of the valley settlement (including Xiàgǔchéngzi plain city). Several early Koguryo cemeteries were located in the neighbourhood. The Koguryo state system was finally organized only after several centuries, thus, the location indicated in written resources as the early capital, should be attributed as the leaders' military centre of the early Koguryo population group.

Pourquoi les Athéniens ont-ils lamentablement échoué là où les Romains ont brillamment réussi?

The study is comparative and focuses, essentially, on classical antiquity, it means both its major centers that are, on the one hand, Athens, the city-reason of chaotic imperialism, and, on the other hand, Rome, the city-world of pragmatic and fully assumed imperialism. First of all, but still, from a comparative perspective, it begins with Near Eastern much older imperialist background, such as the micro-empire set up by Sargon of Akkad or the Assyrian empire during the reign of Shalmaneser III. However, the main aim is to answer the question about why Athenian imperialism fell, despite the obviousness of the lost Peloponnesian War and in contrast to the dazzling success of Roman imperialism. Narrative as well as epigraphic sources are comparatively analysed and one takes advantage of the network theory.

‘Forms of the Canarese Characters at Different Periods’ (1833): A Lithographic Edition by Walter Elliot from the Library of IOM, RAS

The article is dedicated to a newly discovered item from the library of the Institute of Oriental Manuscripts, RAS. The lithographic book was issued in Bombay by a British administration official named Sir W. Elliot (1803–1887) in 1833 as a catalog of early forms of Kannada alphabetic characters dating back to the 6th century A.D. The researcher carefully collected inscriptions from various epigraphic sources. The table with characters is preceded by a Memorandum, where W. Elliot clearly answers the main questions: what kind of material was used in the lithography, where it was found and to what time it belongs, and, most importantly, why the author took the trouble to collect and classify epigraphic characters. The publication in question is an example of the work of a tireless researcher who, in his spare time, was obviously engrossed in an activity that was dear to his heart (like many researchers of all times), making Indian history and culture clearer and closer to the educated Western reader.

“ Hippapai !” Horse-Carriers: A Master Ship of Ancient Thalassocracies

Summary Most powerful ancient navies included a type of ship that conveyed cavalry known as hippagogos – a master weapon of all sea powers – to carry out their expeditions overseas. Ancient thalassocracies understood that their dominion depended not only on fighting ships. Cavalry was necessary for victory on land and was thus a necessary component of their maritime strategy. Control of Mediterranean waters necessitated the construction of horse-carriers that provided much needed auxiliary support to the fleet. Although a naval force might include only a few of these vessels, their role was essential, and for this reason they were part of every significant fleet. Only sea powers with large resources and advanced nautical skills could commission horse-transports, which were old warships that had been transformed. This investigation traces the evolution in the use of vessels conveying cavalry from Persian expeditions in the Aegean to the Battle of Actium. The study considers the literary and epigraphic sources evidencing them in order to emphasize their continued importance for the evolution of naval warfare throughout antiquity. Athenian horse-carriers are the best documented examples and are considered the most extensively, even though many other powers used these kinds of vessels. At the peak of their maritime empire, the Athenian employed horse-carriers on multiple occasions against their enemies. The city-state was renowned for them to the extent that Aristophanes dedicated a comedic episode to them in his play Knights, which indicates the great interest of elites in these vessels. The article also reassesses the role of the cavalrymen who played pivotal roles in the expeditions of all maritime empires in antiquity.

Two Safaitic Inscriptions in Comparison to Geographical and Historical Sources about the Arabian Expedition of Aelius Gallus

The aim of this work is to analyse the critical cruces about some geographical locations in reference to the western coast and the inland parts of the South Arabian and Nabataean area. In detail, the purpose of this research is to investigate the probable location of the port of Leuke Kome through a comparison between an epigraphic source written in Safaitic and some indication in Strabo’s account of the expedition of Aelius Gallus to Arabia Felix. In addition, a new reading of another Safaitic inscription mentioning a curious S1ly (Silleus?) could help to better understand some details of the Roman Arabian campaign too.

Analysing bilingualism and biscriptality in medieval Scandinavian epigraphic sources: a sociolinguistic approach

AbstractWritten culture in high and late medieval Scandinavia is characterized by a long and complex relationship between the Latin written tradition and the older native runic one. One product of the intersection of these traditions are several epigraphs where Latin, vernacular, Latin alphabet, and runes are combined. The aim of this paper is to propose a framework for analysing such bilingual and biscriptal inscriptions which takes into account two fundamental aspects of language and script choice: (1) the literacy of those involved in the production and reception of the texts, and (2) the role of the indexicality of languages and scripts in the shaping and representation of identities. The paper draws on epigraphic analyses and modern sociolinguistic approaches to written multilingualism and shows that an interdisciplinary method can further our understanding of the relationship between the Latin and vernacular written cultures, their status relative to each other, and their social functions in medieval Scandinavia.

Three Elite Burials of the Northern Zhou Period from Guyuan in Ningxia, China

The materials of elite burial complexes of the Northern Zhou period (557–581) discovered in the 1980–1990s in the vicinity of Guyuan City in the Ningxia-Hui Autonomous Region of China are analyzed in this article. Due to the epitaphs engraved on stone slabs found inside the tombs, the names of the buried individuals and the exact dates of the complexes are known: the tombs belong to high-ranking officials of Northern Zhou: Yuwen Meng (565), Li Xian (569) and Tian Hong (574). The complexes under consideration demonstrate a high degree of unification of the funeral rite, which is manifested in the similarity of tomb structures, decor and accompanying grave goods. The features of architectural structures and grave goods of these burials continue the traditions of the previous periods of the Sixteen Barbarian States and the Northern Wei. With a general similarity to the synchronous complexes of the Northern Qi (550– 577), the materials of these tombs allow to distinguish specific features of the Northern Zhou funerary practice: the absence of porcelain items, the use of ritual nephrites, and the secular nature of mural paintings. Against the background of the prevailing influence of the Chinese-Han funerary tradition, there are signs of the influence of the steppe (probably Xianbei) funeral and memorial rituals. Prestigious items imported from Iran, Central Asia, Byzantium testify to the significant role of contacts along the Silk Road in the economical and cultural development of Northern Zhou. Despite the available data from written and epigraphic sources, the problem of identifying the ethnicity of the buried has not yet been resolved. However, the version of their non-Chinese origin seems to be the most probable.

ORIGINS AND EVOLUTION OF STATE POWER IN OLBIA PONTICA

It has long been established that Olbia Pontica is one of the largest and best studied ancient states in the Black Sea region. However, there are still many gaps regarding both generalizing studies of archaeological materials and the main aspects of its political history. Within the framework of this article, the issues of the political system of Olbia as an ancient Greek polis throughout the entire period of its existence from the 6th century BC to the 3th century AD is briefly considered, mainly based on lapidary inscriptions. Whenever possible, we have characterized the main structures of the polis government. According to the traditional scheme, first, the activities of the Oikist, the leader of the Ionian settlers, has described. Thanks to his endurance, reasonable activity and courage, Olbia already in the first decades achieved significant success in economic self-sufficiency, the development of fertile lands, the establishment of trade relations with the metropolis, many Greek cities and local tribes. A single civil community at the beginning of an independent policy and the definition of a pantheon with the compilation of four sacred zones on the territory of the Upper City of Olbia as a whole led to the creation of an independent original type of an ancient Greek state on the far periphery of the ancient ecumene. Hypothetically, the first Oikist was Euresibius, whose power was close to tyrannical, as at that time in the metropolis.
 Founders and their heirs, who, according to ancient tradition, belonged to the aristocrats, have always occupied the main positions in the polis. In the second half of the 6th—5th centuries BC the oligarchic regime is confirmed by epigraphic and numismatic sources, as well as materials from the archaic necropolis.
 The aristocratic sacred union of the molps played a significant role in the polis, similar to the Milesian one. Because of close ties with Athens and the revived Miletus, in Olbia, at first, the supporters of the democratic system won for a short time. The transition from oligarchy to almost a hundred years of tyranny over the Scythian protectorate in the 5th century BC has no credible evidence.
 According to numerous epigraphic sources, a democratic system existed in the Olbia polis until the Getic rout around the middle of the 1st century BC and been restored with the return of the Olbiopolites to their native city after the victory of the Romans over the Getic kingdom of Burebista in 48 BC. In Olbia, various types of democracy can be traced (radical, moderate and predominantly elitist). The article briefly characterizes the main legislative bodies of power (the People’s Assembly and the Council) and the periodic changes in their role in the polis. In addition, the appointment and specifics of the activities of elected executive boards, both permanent and elective auxiliary boards in extraordinary situations, are considered. In addition, numerous individual positions, one way or another fixed in the Olbian inscriptions of different times, belonged to the elected ones. In the first centuries of our era, there are no temporary colleges, probably because of the shrinking of the city and a smaller population. The durability of democratic power in the Olbia policy explained by the unity of the civil community, the freedom of activity of its members, high ethnic self-consciousness and the constant desire for peaceful coexistence with neighboring peoples, the preservation of parental linguistic and religious traditions throughout ancient times.

Temple Landscape: The Direct and the Latent Impact of Natural Environment upon Artificial Environs

Abstract The dynamics of an ancient religious centre lies in the combination of architecture with the geophysical relief and natural setting, namely the manner in which a temple befits its natural surroundings. Paintings and etchings/lithographs help us follow the transformation of hieratic settings in the course of centuries. An intriguing juxtaposition is that of tree cult to the practical role of timber in ancient worksites, as revealed through building accounts and classical authors. Turning to ritual symbolism, we see vegetation lending its forms to works of sculpture. Yet, most impressive is the infiltration of tree prototypes and floral patterns in architecture, affecting not only decorative styles and orders but also the morphology of structural elements. The article’s last section involves landscape restoration/re-creation attempted by the replanting of ancient species. This was based on either ancient literary and epigraphic sources or laboratory analyses, namely botanical and pollen research. The results of these methods, however, do not always converge.

Avidije Kasije u antičkim izvorima

The rule of the Antonine dynasty is depicted by Romans and some modern historians as the golden age of the Roman Empire. The internal harmony during the reign of the first five emperors of that dynasty was disturbed only by the short-lived rebellion of Avidius Cassius, which occurred during the power of the philosopher-emperor Marcus Aurelius. The sources that describe Cassius' rebellion and that give us the most essential information about his life interpreted the rebellion as a coincidence and a misunderstanding, without trying to fathom the deeper socio-political circumstances that could have led to its outbreak. By critically examining the available written and epigraphic sources, we have tried to provide a complete account of the history of Cassius' rise and fall. He was a man from the Eastern provinces whose family was integrated into the highest strata of Roman society only in the last two generations. Thanks to his social connections, but above all to his military abilities, which came to the fore during the war against the Parthians, he managed to reach the highest rungs of the Roman hierarchy. He was more than a governor and less than an emperor. He dreamed of being emperor, but that dream, according to Dion Cassius, lasted only three months and six days. The circumstances in which he tried to turn that dream of the Empire into reality were an enigma for both ancient and modern historians, who, reading between the lines, try to penetrate the essence of the events of the seventies of the second century

Social Mobility in the Western Roman Empire under Julian the Apostate

Tis article analyses several aspects of the administrative policy of Julian the Apostate in the western half of the Roman Empire (first as the сaesar under Constantius II, from 355 to 360 AD, and then as the augustus from 361 to 363). Taking the narrative, legislative, and epigraphic sources, analysed with the prosopographic method, into account, the author explores the relationship of Caesar Julian with the elites of the West and the features of social mobility in the West under Julian as independent ruler after 361. The author has run to conclusion that Julian the Apostate’s administrative policy in the promotion to senior positions divided into several stages. At the first stage, Julian tried just to strengthen his own position and not changed the existing order. In this period, he had to accept the orders from his cousin Constantius II. The second stage was under the preparation for the war with Constantius II, when Julian changed the military and civilian elite. In the third period, Julian tried to legitimize his power and reach an agreement with the Roman Senate. In social terms, most of Julian’s appointees were the “new people,” or the officials, persons of liberal professions, and military men of barbarian origin. The religion of the appointees did not matter. The suggestion of the Gauls dominating among Julian’s appointees does not work.

Ancient Gymnasion as a Spaceof Lifelong Learning

The ancient gymnasion, a symbol of Hellenic culture, receives constant attention in the literature. Even today, however, the traditional interpretation prevails, which understands the gymnasion as a secondary school connected to the sports field, and neglects its other functions, including supporting lifelong learning. This study aims to expand the interpretation of the ancient gymnasion, above all, to bring closer its importance to adult education. Due to the absence of information in andragogy on the significance of gymnasion for adult education, the study leans on archaeological, historical and epigraphic sources and analyses of ancient sports. The spatial turn of the end of the 20th century contributed in these sources methodologically to the innovative reflections of the gymnasion. The text defines the terminological, chronological and territorial aspects of the ancient gymnasion and reflects the areas of its narrower interpretation. It summarizes the functions of the gymnasion and particularly those related to adult education. The gymnasion is further characterized as an antique interactive space that supports adult learning. The last section recalls gymnasion workers in terms of their activities that initiated non-formal adult education. In conclusion, we can therefore interpret the gymnasion as an institution of formal youth education and at the same time as an adult education facility – as a complex interactive space for lifelong learning.

Babylonia as the center of the Early Selkid Empire

The interest in the Seleucid empire and the problems of organizing the political space in the Hellenistic East has recently been due to a methodological turn in the historiography of the Hellenistic era. These changes actualized the study of the role of Babylonia in the empire of the first Seleucids according to narrative and epigraphic sources. The satrapy appears in them as the region where the political career of Diadochus and the founder of the Seleucus dynasty began after the death of Alexander the Great. It was here that his power was most entrenched, apparently supported by local priestly elites. Although the question of the political center of the Seleucid state has been considered in historiography, however, it has not received systematic study. The scientific novelty lies in the study of the early Seleucid state and the peculiarities of the eastern policy of the first Seleucids in the imperial context. The methodological basis is the methods used to study imperial and multicultural spaces, as well as general scientific philosophical and historical methods. The study of the legendary information about Seleucus revealed frequent references to Babylonia in predictions of his future power, which should be perceived as a vaticinium ex eventu. This indicates the ideological and "mythological" significance of the image of Babylonia for the Seleucids, which can be explained both by the strategic and economic role of the region and its significance in Alexander's policy, which can be interpreted as a manifestation of "imitatio Alexandri".

To the Discussion on the Time When the Byzantine Castle Was Built a Top of Mangup

The current hypothesis states that the large Byzantine castle was constructed at Mangup-Doros in the last years of Emperor Justinian I (527–565). It was put up by A. G. Gertsen as early as 1990. The reason was the results of archaeological researches conducted at the site. The accounts of written and epigraphic sources form chronological markers: the absence of data on this castle in Procopius of Caesarea’s treatise De aedificiis, and a slab fragment featuring a building inscription of Justinian I. However, recently A. I. Aibabin proposed a different chronology of the construction of the castle atop of the Mangup plateau, in the last quarter of the sixth century, or under Emperor Maurice (582–602), after 590. The main arguments for the re-dating of fortification buildings atop of Mangup were the same account of Procopius of Caesarea and the absence among the excavated materials of archaeological complexes narrowly dated to the age of Justinian I and related to the construction of fortress walls. If it was the case, one has to admit the accidental nature of the building inscription of Justinian I in the territory of the castle. As the said interpretation is certainly disputable and at the same time extraordinary importance for the current stage of research of the history of the South-Western Crimea in the Early Middle Ages, the given article re-examines in detail the main arguments of the traditional interpretation of the chronology of the buildings of the Mangup castle, supplemented with the results of its most recent excavations. From the analysis of the sources undertaken there are reasons to date the construction of the Byzantine castle atop of Mangup to 550–565. Moreover, of particular importance for these conclusions are the materials of many-year-long archaeological researches on the site. Generally, they indicate that the building of strong fortifications around the plateau of Mangup in the middle and the early second half of the sixth century was accompanied with no less large-scale development of the space inside the castle walls.

The ludi Graeci in Cicero

This article re-analyses in detail the meaning of the expression ludi Graeci which appears in two of Cicero’s letters (Ad Fam. 7,1 and Ad Att. 15,5). A careful examination of the first instance reveals that ludi Graeci indeed referred to theatrical performances in Greek language and not merely to Latin plays that followed Greek models. A brief survey of contemporary epigraphical sources shows that no occurrence excludes this interpretation. The question of the apparent contradiction between Cicero’s philhellenism and his criticism of the ludi Graeci in the two letters is also addressed, in order to demonstrate that the two attitudes are not mutually exclusive.

The Mythological Tradition Concerning the Sanctuary of Apollo in Didyma

This article is devoted to myths about the sanctuary of Apollo in Didyma and their evolution. The author analyzes myths survived to modern times and di-
 vides them into three groups: myths about the origin of Didyma, myths about heroes and myths about local cult practices.
 It is important to note that most of the evidence that has survived we know from books of later antique authors. Although, probably, some of myths were created in the archaic era, but they acquired their final form already in the postclassical time. It is reflected both in the fact that myths interpret the unusual for Greeks name of the legendary progenitor of the sanctuary «Branchos» and that
 myths connect the sanctuary with the legendary heroes of the polis. The latter was
 necessary in order to justify the close ties between the sanctuary and Miletus during Hellenistic and Roman periods.
 The myth of the conception of Apollo in Didyma is also important for understanding ideas of the ancient Milesians. We know about it thanks to the epigraphic sources of the Hellenistic era, but its archaic roots are indirectly confirmed by archaeological finds. This myth justifies the status of Didyma as one of
 the most significant sanctuaries of Apollo. Myths about cult practices were prob-
 ably created late and do not reflect the actual ancient rites practiced in Didyma.
 In general, it can be said that although the mythological tradition has come down to us in a very fragmentary way, it allows us to put Didyma into the context of the most significant Hellenic oracles.

Роль свадебной церемонии в эллинистической Македонии

The history of the Hellenistic kingdoms remains the subject of many scientific discussions. The question of the peculiarities of the Macedonian monarchy has been widely discussed again in recent years. To solve this problem, they study certain aspects of the political, social and cultural life of the state, which confirms the relevance of the chosen topic. The purpose of this study is to identify the role of the royal wedding ceremony in the politics of the Macedonian rulers. The research is based on narrative and epigraphic sources. The main methods are analysis and synthesis, as well as comparative-historical. The celebration of the royal wedding is designed to demonstrate the power of the dynasty and seal the political union of the two states. However, with regard to Hellenistic Macedonia, these statements should be considered in the context of the reign of Philip II. Although narrative sources have preserved little information, but their comparison allows us to assert that the beginning of such luxurious events was laid by Philip II. At the same time, his own weddings, apparently, were limited to a feast and did not serve as a guarantor of peace and the union of the two states. The changes took place at the wedding of his daughter Cleopatra. Probably, the changes are connected with the new status of the king himself, who became the head of the Corinthian League. Since that time, the marriage ceremonies of the Hellenistic kings have been held on the same scale. Conclusions. In fact, Philip has established a new tradition. Marriage was not a guarantee of non-aggression of new relatives against each other. The pomp of the ceremony, on the one hand, was a demonstration of the power and authority of the dynasty, and on the other hand, it was used to promote a particular political idea.

Migration of Free Roman Citizens and a Barbarian King to Histria

This paper examines the migration and origins of Roman citizens in Histria based mainly on epigraphical sources. It focuses on the origins and identity of the newcomers who settled permanently in the region during the entire Imperial period. It looks into free individuals who migrated voluntarily in search of a better life and trade earnings, and others who settled as veterans or found refuge in Histria from troubles in their homeland. The legal status of settlers, visitors, and immigrants was resolved by special decisions, as evidenced by the inscription on the use of thermal baths near Buje, which records the decurions' permission to the colonists, incolae, and foreigners to bathe. Inscriptions confirm various types of migration in Histria, seasonal, temporary, and permanent. Members of the municipal aristocracy and Augustals retained their status after the relocation. Several veterans, mostly born in Italy, settled permanently in Histria. Particularly interesting is the case of Rasparaganus, King of the Sarmatian tribe of Roxolani, who died and was buried with his family on the small island in Pola. Among migrants without ties to the military or the administration but who came to Histria because of their profession or in search of higher earnings, clothing merchants stand out. Temporary visitors were registered in important religious and health centres. Finally, the paper examines city patrons coming from another city to establish whether they can be considered migrants.